A systematic review of clinical characteristics, co-morbidities and outcomes of COVID-19 in children and adolescents

Background: COVID-19 is a major global health challenge that has affected all age groups and gender, with over 5 million deaths reported worldwide to date. The objective of this study is to assess available information on COVID-19 in children and adolescents with respect to clinical characteristics, co-morbidities, and outcomes, and identify gaps in the literatures for appropriate actions. Methodology: Electronic databases including Web of Science, PubMed, Scopus, and Google Scholar were searched for observational studies such as case series, cross-sectional and cohort studies published from December 2019 to September 2021, using the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guide. Data extracted included (i) patient demography (age and gender), (ii) clinical characteristics including vaccination status and presence of co-morbidities, (iii) clinical management including the use of sequential organ failure assessment (SOFA) scores, oxygen requirement, use of mechanical ventilation, and (iv) disease outcomes including length of hospital and intensive care unit (ICU) admission, recovery, complications with sequelae, or death. Data were analyzed using descriptive statistics. Results: A total of 11 eligible studies were included with a total of 266 children and adolescents; 137 (51.5%) females and 129 (48.5%) males. The mean age of the children was 9.8 years (range of 0 ­ 19 years), and children ≥ 6 years were more affected (40.7%) than age groups 1 ­ 5 years (31.9%) and < 1 year (27.4%). The major co-morbidities were respiratory diseases including pre-existing asthma (3.4%), neurologic conditions (3.4%) and cardiac pathology (2.3%). Majority (74.8%, 199/266) of the patients were discharged without sequelae, 0.8% (2/266) were discharged with sequalae from one study, and mortality of 1.9% (5/266) was reported, also from one study. SOFA scores of patients at admission were not stated in any of the study, while only one study reported patient vaccination status. Conclusion: It is recommended that safe vaccines for children < 1 year of age should be developed in addition to other preventive measures currently in place. SOFA scores should be used to assess risk of COVID-19 severity and monitor prognosis of the disease, and vaccination status of children should be documented as this may impact the management and prognosis of the disease.

HIV exposure and its association with paediatric ICU outcomes in children admitted with severe pneumonia at Chris Hani Baragwanath Academic Hospital, South Africa

Background. Pneumonia is one of the leading causes of under-5 death in South Africa and accounts for a substantial burden of paediatric intensive care unit (PICU) admissions. However, little is known about PICU outcomes in HIV-exposed uninfected (HIV-EU) children with pneumonia, despite the growing size of this vulnerable population. Objectives. To determine whether HIV exposure without infection is an independent risk factor for mortality and morbidity in children admitted to PICU with pneumonia. Methods. This retrospective review included all patients with pneumonia admitted to the PICU at Chris Hani Baragwanath Academic Hospital between 1 January 2013 and 31 December 2014. Patients were classified as HIV-unexposed (HIV-U), HIV-EU and HIV-infected. Medical records were reviewed to determine survival to PICU discharge, duration of PICU admission and duration of mechanical ventilation. Survival analysis was used to determine the association between HIV infection/exposure with mortality, and linear regression was used to examine the association with length of stay and duration of mechanical ventilation. This study included 107 patients: 54 were HIV-U; 28 were HIV-EU; 23 HIV-positive; and 2 had an unknown HIV status. Results. Overall, 84% (n=90) survived to PICU discharge, with no difference in survival based on HIV infection or exposure. Both HIV-EU and HIV-U children had significantly shorter PICU admissions and fewer days of mechanical ventilation compared with HIV-infected children (p=0.011 and p=0.004, respectively). Conclusion. HIV-EU children behaved similarly to HIV-U children in terms of mortality, duration of PICU admission and length of mechanical ventilation. HIV infection was associated with prolonged length of mechanical ventilation and ICU stay but not increased mortality.

High-frequency oscillatory ventilation in a tertiary paediatric intensive care unit in an academic hospital in Johannesburg, South Africa

Background. High-frequency oscillatory ventilation (HFOV) remains an option for the management of critically ill children when conventional mechanical ventilation fails. However, its use is not widespread, and there is wide variability reported with respect to how it is used. Objectives. To describe the frequency, indications, settings and outcomes of HFOV use among paediatric patients with a primary respiratory disorder admitted to a tertiary paediatric intensive care unit (PICU). Methods. The study was a 2-year, single-centre, retrospective chart review. Results. Thirty-four (32.7%) patients were managed with HFOV in the PICU during the study period. Thirty-three of the 34 patients had paediatric acute respiratory distress syndrome. Indications for HFOV were inadequate oxygenation in 17 patients (50%), and refractory respiratory acidosis in 15 patients (44.1%) (2 patients did not fit into either category). Approaches to the setting of HFOV varied considerably, particularly with respect to initial pressure around the airways. HFOV was effective at improving both oxygenation, with a median (interquartile range (IQR)) decrease in oxygenation index of 6.34 (5.0 - 9.5), and ventilation with a the median decrease in PaCO2 of 67.6 (46.2 - 105.7) mmHg after 24 hours. Overall mortality was 29.4% in the HFOV group, which is consistent with other studies. Conclusion. HFOV remains an effective rescue ventilatory strategy, which resulted in rapid and sustained improvement in gas exchange in patients with severe hypoxaemia and/or severe respiratory acidosis, particularly in the absence of extracorporeal support. However, the variability in practice and the adverse effects described highlight the need for future high-quality randomised controlled trials to allow for development of meaningful guidelines to optimise HFOV use

Factors underlying the changing of antibiotics in a paediatric intensive care unit in Pietermaritzburg, KwaZulu-Natal

Background. Antibiotics are among the most commonly used drugs in a paediatric intensive care unit (PICU). Despite guidelines and protocols for the use of antibiotics, inappropriate use may contribute to an increase in antibiotic resistance. The factors behind changes in antibiotic prescriptions in the PICU at Grey's Hospital are unknown. Objective. To establish the frequency, process and rationale behind antibiotic prescription changes in the picu. Methods. A retrospective descriptive study of all eligible patients admitted to the PICU during a 6-month period.Results. Three-quarters of patients admitted to the PICU received antibiotics during their stay. The ofantibiotic prescription was changed in 80 (58%) of the138 patients, with most changes (63.4%) occurring within 3 days of admission. Patients younger than 1 year and those who were malnourished accounted for 57% of the changes. The majority (65%) of the changes entailed the escalation of antibiotics and 89% of these were empiric therapy. De-escalation accounted for 35% of the changes. The rationale for a prescription change was not documented in 80% of cases.Conclusion. Antibiotic use in this PICU and changes to prescriptions were common. Changes were generally made on an empirical basis soon after admission and were more likely to occur in young malnourished children and patients admitted for a medical reason or surgical emergency

Red blood cell concentrate transfusion strategies utilised at a tertiary-level paediatric intensive care unit: A descriptive study on impact and cost

Background. Optimal haemoglobin threshold for red blood cell (RBC) transfusions in critically ill anaemic children in a paediatric intensive care unit (PICU) is uncertain.Objective. To describe outcomes and costs associated with different RBC transfusion strategies in anaemic patients admitted to a tertiary PICU in Durban, South Africa.Methods. Transfusion data gathered over a 1-year period were analysed retrospectively. RBC transfusion strategies were classified as restrictive, 'modified liberal' or mixed. The 'modified liberal' group was subdivided into haemodynamically stable or unstable clusters.Transfusion-related effects, comorbidities and mortality were described. Costs associated with RBC transfusions in the various strategy groups were analysed.Results. Over the 118 transfusion records analysed, a restrictive strategy was adopted in 27 cases (22.9%) and a modified liberal strategy was used in 68 cases (57.6%). A mixed strategy was followed in 23 (19.5%) cases. Although mortality was higher in the modified liberal group than in the restrictive group (27.9% v. 11.1%), the difference was not statistically different (p=0.09). There were no differences in the duration of intermittent positive pressure ventilation, length of PICU stay or post-transfusion effects between the restrictive and modified liberal transfusion strategies. A saving of R155 280.15 could have been realised if a restrictive transfusion strategy had been used for haemodynamically stable patients assigned to the modified liberal group. A further R28 988.67 was spent on avoidable after-hours transfusions levies.Conclusion. Adopting a restrictive daytime strategy for RBC transfusions at a PICU could introduceconsiderable cost savings without affecting outcomes

epidemiologie des urgences pediatriques en ORL a Antananarivo : resultats preliminaires

Objectif: Evaluer la prevalence et la gravite des urgences pediatriques en ORL a Antananarivo Methodes: C'est une etude retrospective etalee sur deux ans; du 1 janvier 2007 au 31 decembre 2008; portant sur 549 cas d'urgences oto-rhinolaryngologiques pediatriques observes dans deux centres hospitaliers d'Antananarivo. Resultats: Les enfants de 1 a 5 ans ont ete les plus touches; les garcons plus que les filles. Ils s'agissaient par ordre de frequence : de corps etrangers (73;40); d'urgences hemorragiques (16;75); d'urgences infectieuses (8;56) et d'urgences respiratoires (0;72des cas). Les urgences infectieuses ont ete dominees par les atteintes de l'oreille (42;55). Les atteintes laryngees ont predomine parmi les urgences respiratoires; hormis les corps etrangers laryngo-tracheo-bronchiques. Conclusion: Contrairement aux urgences hemorragiques; surtout rencontrees dans la tranche d'age de 10 a 15 ans; les corps etrangers sont plutot rencontres chez les petits enfants de 1 a 5 ans

Mortalite pediatrique aux urgences chirurgicales du centre hospitalier Universitaire d'Antananarivo

Objectif: La place et les problematiques des urgences chirurgicales pediatriques dans un pays en developpement ne sont pas bien connues. Aussi; nous sommes-nous permis de determiner la frequence et les facteurs de risque de mortalite pediatrique dans le cadre des urgences chirurgicales. Patients et methode: Il s'agit d'une etude retrospective sur dossiers; menee dans le service des urgences chirurgicales du Centre Hospitalier Universitaire Joseph Ravoahangy Andrianavalona d'Antananarivo. Tous les malades ages de moins de 14 ans admis dans le service du 1er janvier au 31 decembre 2006 et decedes quelle que soit leur pathologie etaient inclus. Resultats: La mortalite pediatrique s'elevait a 15;92 pour 1000 enfants hospitalises. L'age moyen des malades etait de 2;6 ans et 53;84avaient moins d'un an. Le sexe masculin representait 61;53. Une proportion de 88;52etait issue d'une famille a faible niveau socio-economique. La duree moyenne d'evolution de la maladie avant la consultation etait de 3;2 jours avec des extremes allant de deux heures a 16 jours. Les etiologies etaient dominees par les pathologies digestives acquises ou congenitales. Conclusion: Le retard de la prise en charge lie au probleme socio-economique; au manque d'equipement et la penurie de personnels qualifies pour la chirurgie pediatrique etaient autant de facteurs qui avaient accru la mortalite. Ainsi; la creation d'une unite d'urgence pediatrique est justifiee car le nombre de passage est assez consequent; ceci afin de reduire la mortalite